PIE People:
We need to understand and define the word “Proto-Indo- European, often used
by the scientists and historians of various disciplines to describe the group of ancestral
prehistoric people, who may have spoken an unrecorded and therefore unwritten language
that created archaic daughter and present Granddaughter languages, spoken in Europe, Baltic region,
Russia, South Asian subcontinent and ancient Persia. They may have used some basic vocabulary to
communicate within their family and surrounding community, and as population expanded
they included nearby tribes. The common activities like hunting, trading and fighting involved
the contacts for exchanges, communications and relationships. This is a linguist construct by
comparing the roots words of existing known languages spoken by Indo-European (Caucasian) people.
PIE Language:
The modern linguists hypothesized this theoretical reconstruct using modern, written and
spoken languages of the Indo-European group of people using backward integration and
comparison method of some basic elementary words that were important to those early
prehistoric people and their cultures. This reconstruction produced a hypothetical version of
their spoken language that was called PIE language or mother of all Indo-European languages
that are now spoken worldwide.
There is no evidence to prove this hypothesis as no written scripts, texts or records are to be
found for those ancient humans, other than scattered discovery of the mummies, material
cultures involving, jewelries, costumes, fabrics and shredded Potteries along with burial
customs. There has been considerable work done by the numbers of linguistic experts who
have studied and analyzed these archaic daughter languages to present daughter languages
and traced them back to the earliest ancestral hypothetical language of “PIE”(Proto-Indo-
European) people. It is by far the most advanced, understood and accepted hypothesis of all
proto languages of early history. Most of the reconstruction of this hypothesis was
derived from comparative analysis of the modern daughter languages and now extinct
archaic languages of Greek, Gothic, Celtic, Vedic and Persian languages of IE people.
It is assumed through this study and comparative analysis that Proto IE language once was
spoken tongue but not necessarily in written form during late Neolithic or early Bronze Age. The exact
dating is uncertain can be perhaps much older than the assumed dating of major extinct daughter
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languages like Sanskrit, Latin and others. The linguistic reconstruction of PIE has also provided insight
into the culture, religion and associated mythologies of their speakers. It is also stipulated that Kurgan
and or Andronovo archeological cultures along with all related later cultures of the central Asian
steppes were related to each other. Their ancestral homeland has various claims and
majority claims centered on steppe theory of migrations or origination. It is known based on various
cultures that these migrations were gradually moving slowly toward west and south west
over many centuries. As they migrated, the mixing may have occurred with various native
populations that they have encountered. These interchanges contributed to the genetic
variations and fusion of cultures and the evolution of modern languages, religion and myths.
This process contributed to emergence of spoken languages, writing scripts and alphabets. For
example Phoenician’s contribution of alphabets to Greeks that helped enlarged the vocabulary with
new words. The steppe theory that is widely accepted assumption gets challenged by various
nationalistic sentiments, just like Columbus belonged to more than one country, or who discovered
America first. This kind of nationalistic based sentiment cloud the science-based conclusion
and contributes to differences among the experts. The Andronovo culture flourished around
6500-3000 BC in western Siberia and the eastern Eurasian Steppe but the dating can be older
based on new discoveries.
Proto Indo-European, their movements and spread was probably
driven by climatic changes:
It is assumed that unknown climatic change made various tribes to move along
west and south west in search for pasture and food for themselves and their animals. This
climate change was either driven by seismic, celestial or atmospheric events of unknown
origin. This may have induced the changes to the weather patterns influencing the rainfalls or
wind patterns. There are no recorded data except the vague recollection recorded in later centuries
found in some of the ancient scriptures. It is interesting to note that besides their language
reconstruct, their worshipping practices that had a common base but they continue to expand their
Gods and Goddesses as they migrated longer and farther from their original homeland as they mixed
with other cultures. The data collected below shows that those groups who expanded either further
west or southwest had more gods and goddesses due to mixing with other cultures and tribes.
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Simultaneously or soon after and during the same timeline, similar changes created havocs in
Sumerian and Indus Valley civilizations (Harappans), that is assumed to have lasted over
several centuries. There are archeological evidences of abandoned sites and cities but the
record of their language is in symbolic form that is deciphered in Mesopotamia and Egypt,
where inscribed clay tablets were discovered dated to later Bronze Age period. The areas
that may have been lush with green forest, waterfalls and river streams suddenly turned
inhospitable for human settlements, turned either cold or very dry (desiccation of soil)
resulting in creation of the sandy deserts.
This hypothesis further stipulates that these steppe-based nomadic PIE speakers split up into
various tribes and clans and started moving in different directions perhaps over several
centuries in search of grazing lands and foods. The zigzag movements cannot be ruled out
along the ways. As they moved towards west and south west, they may
have picked up regional dialects and underwent sound divergence along with shift in
morphology. The linguistic experts have established that the present daughter languages like
Spanish, English, and Hindustani, Portuguese, Russian, German, Iranian, French, Italian,
Ukrainian, Albanian, Kurdish, Welsh and other related spoken languages were derived from
Proto-IE language. The Sanskrit, Latin, Tocharian, Hittite and Gothic languages are classified
as early forbearers or “first daughters of Proto IE language.
If we were to use linguistic reconstructed model as formulated by the experts that was
published in Archeology magazine as an illustration, it would look like this, when restated in
Proto-IE language:
“The King and the God”
Once there was a king. He was childless. The king wanted a son. He asked his priest: "May a
son is born to me!" The priest said to the king: "Pray to the god “Varuna”. The king
approached the god “Varuna” to pray. He said to the god: “Hear me, father Varuna!" The
god Varuna came down from heaven. "What do you want?" "I want a son." "Let this be so,"
said the bright god “Varuna”. The king's Wife bore a son. “Varuna” is ancient IE God and
frequently revoked in early Rig-Vedic hymns and mentioned in Hittite civilization.
When reconstructed the same story and rendered in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European
language. It would read and write like this as shown below through reconstruction:
“H3rḗḱs deiuos-kwe”
“H3rḗḱs h1est; só n̥putlós. H3rḗḱs súhxnum u̯ln̥ h1to. Tósio̯ ǵʰéu̯torm̥ prēḱst: "Súhxnus moi ̯
ǵn̥h1ie̯ tōd!" Ǵʰéu̯tōr tom h3rḗǵm̥ u̯eu̯ked: "h1iá̯ ǵesu̯o deiu̯ ̯óm U̯érunom". Úpo h3rḗḱs
deiu̯ ̯óm U̯érunom sesole nú deiu̯ ̯óm h1ia̯ ǵeto. "ḱludʰí moi, pter U̯erune!" Deiu̯ ̯ós U̯érunos
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diu̯és km̥ tá gʷah2t. "Kʷíd u̯ēlh1si?" "Súhxnum u̯ēlh1mi." "Tód h1estu", u̯éu̯ked leu̯kós
deiu̯ ̯ós U̯érunos. Nu h3réḱs pótnih2 súhxnum ǵeǵonh1e.”
Archeology, DNA studies and Anthropology of various cultures of
Central Asian Steppe:
An international team of researchers have published DNA studies on number of ancient
mummies from various excavated sites in central Asian steppe and with the help of genetics
and experts have performed the comparative studies of various mummies and have
concluded:
“The modern genetics studies now have accumulated data with compelling evidence that
Haplogroup R1a and R1b, the most common paternal lineages in Europe, Central Asia and
parts of South Asia, were mainly propagated by the Indo-European migrations during the
Bronze Age. A sizeable part of European maternal lineages also seems to be of Indo-European
origin, although the proportion varies by regions. However, they correlate largely with the
proportion of Y-Haplogroup R1a and R1b. Other paternal lineages, such as G2a3b, J2b2, and
T1a, belong to the Copper Age from the Balkans and modern Ukraine. They were absorbed
by the expansion of R1a and R1b people who originated from central Russia (Volga basin) and
southern Russia (Kuban, northwest Caucasus).” The first PIE expansion into Europe was the
Corded Ware culture, which so far have yielded only R1a samples. R1b is thought to have
invaded the Balkans, then followed the Danube until Germany, from where it spread to
Western Europe and Scandinavia. The Asian branch originated around the Volga basin, then
expanded across the Urals with the Sintashta culture, then over most of Central Asia and
southern Siberia. Various cultures were named based on archeological findings and dating by
the archeologists, starting from lower and middle Volga River, Poltakva culture, Andronova
culture, Abashevo culture, Yamnaya culture, Sintashta culture and BMAC culture.”
dilution in R1a through intermixing with locals
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Yet another study reported: “The Yamnaya expansions from the western steppe into Europe
and Asia during the Early Bronze Age are believed to have brought with them Indo-European
languages and possibly horse and cattle husbandry. The researchers analyzed 74 ancients
mummies with entire genome sequences from various places in central Asia from eastern
Mongolia to western Anatolia (Turkey) and they concluded that the so called Botai people
described earlier by archeologists, who were associated with the earliest known
domestication of horse (3700–3100 BC) of ancient Kazakhstan. Anthony connects the “Botai
culture to the migration of peoples from the Volga-Ural steppe in the mid-4th millennium
BC, which would lead to the establishment of the Afanasevo culture in South Siberia.
However, the DNA results also suggest distinct migrations that brought West Eurasian
ancestry into South Asia before and after, but not at the time of Yamnaya culture. They found
no evidence of steppe ancestry of Bronze Age in Anatolia (Turkey) to establish Anatolia as
their first homeland or from here the daughter Indo-European languages began. Thus, in
contrast to Europe, Early Bronze Age Yamnaya-related migrations had suggested direct
genetic impact coming from eastern Asia.”
Yamnaya culture is also referred as a “Pit Grave culture or Ochre Grave culture” that rose
from early Bronze Age in the steppe region between the Dniester, Ural Rivers, Sur Darya,
Amu Darya (Pontiac steppe). Its name refers to its characteristic burial tradition of earlier
kurgans culture of steppe containing a just a simple pit chamber. Their material culture was
very similar to the “Afanasevo culture”, their contemporaries in the Altai Mountains;
furthermore, genetic tests have confirmed that the two groups are genetically very similar,
suggesting they descended from same people or having relationship with each other’s. This is
why David Anthony's remark about PIE homeland in his book, “The Horse, the Wheel and
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Language” makes more sense as there were many homelands as they migrated in stages over
time. Anthony does support the evidence linking it to four successive Indo-European cultures
The Large number of linguists agrees that PIE language may have been spoken as a single
language around 6000 to 3500 BC that coincides with Yamna culture that rose in the Pontiac-
Caspian steppe and related Maykop culture in the northwest Caucasus.
Hypothesis of migration and split-off around Caspian Sea, believed to be originated from somewhere in Russia
R1A Group Spread
It is not clear how and where the original R1 mutated, but it does explain how this DNA
strand would have picked up additional mutations along the way as it mixed with the people
they encountered on their route of the movement.
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Proto-IE Archeology and Anthropology:
A Lithuanian-American archeologist Marija Gimbutas proposed Kurgan hypothesis long time
ago, which proposed that the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language arose in the Pontiac
steppe. During the Yamna period, one of the world's first Bronze Age cultures, Proto-Indo-
European speakers migrated west towards Europe and east towards Central Asia and then
turned South towards sub-continent, spreading with them the Indo-European languages
spoken today in most of Europe, Iran and a big part of the Indian subcontinent. The Kurgan
model is the most widely accepted scenario of Indo-European origins. Marija Gimbutas also
investigated the Neolithic period in order to understand cultural changes in Balkan region,
that she characterized as peaceful, matrilineal, and possessing a goddess- centered religion.
In contrast, she characterizes the later Indo-European influences as warlike, nomadic, and
patrilineal. Using evidence from pottery and sculpture, and combining the tools of
archaeology, comparative mythology, linguistics, and, most controversial folklores, Gimbutas
coined the new word called “archaeomythology.
Avestan text does mention the original homeland of Indo-Iranian people as being wintry
cold. Bundahishn 29:12 states clearly that the homeland was located either beside or north of
present Azerbaijan. This can put the place close to BMAC archeology complex. However,
there are many divergent opinions. The problem is oral tradition and related recollections.
One can state that based on contemporary geography as a reference point with orally
transmitted knowledge, it can go back to few centuries unrelated to the geography that their
ancestors began their journey. This can be third or 4th or unnumbered stops towards
ultimate destination. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who was India’s freedom fighter and a historian
predicted Aryan homeland as somewhere in Russia. There is a vague reference of “Uttara
Kuru” in epic Mahabharata that is clearly the epics of so called “Aryan” people, that is now
assumed by most scholar as Uzbekistan -Kyrgyzstan region. Mahabharata is full of story of
“bride kidnapping” practice that was more regarded as the governing custom.
http://www.uzbekjourneys.com/2018/10/bride-abduction-is-not-cool-kyrgyzstan.html
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Tarim Basin Mummies-present-day Xinjiang, China, which date from 2000 BC (Red hair and blue eyes)
Tocharian in Dacia (Europe) Urumqi mummy in Uyghur - northwest china (East Central Asia)
Pazyryk and Scythian mummies with tattoos
The Corded Ware people as well as the peoples of the Sintashta, Andronova, BMAC and
Srubna cultures have the same genetic relationships. In these wider groups, several aspects of
the Yamuna culture were present such as horse-riders, burial styles, and to some extent the
pastoralist economy. Genetic studies have also indicated that these populations derived large
parts of their ancestry from the steppes of central Asia. BMAC culture is more specifically
related to Indo-Iranians (Vedic and Persian).
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The Kernosovskiy idol & Mummies of Pit Grave (Yamuna) culture Reconstructed Proto IE man from DNA studies
Early Asians and Europeans are assumed to have light skinned and light-colored eyes from some DNA studies
Spread of steppe cultures of Asia
Michael Balter in his published article in science magazine stated that:
“Mysterious Indo-European homeland may have been in the steppes of Ukraine & Russia.”
He stated that: “What do you call a male sibling? If you speak English, he is your “brother”
Greek Call him “phrater”. In Sanskrit, Latin, Old Irish? He is a “Bhrater” “frater” or “brathir”
respectively.
Ever since the mid-17th century AD, scholars have noted such similarities among the so-called
Indo-European languages, which span the world and numbers more than 400, if all dialects
are included. Researchers agree that they can probably all be traced back to one ancestral
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language, called Proto-Indo-European (PIE). But for nearly 20 years, scholars have debated
vehemently when and where PIE arose and where was the homeland.
The Fans of the steppe hypothesis are now hailing a genetics study that used ancient DNA
from 69 Europeans who lived between 8000 and 3000 years ago to genetically track ancient
population movements. The work, now posted on the “BioRxiv”, a preprint server, was done
by a large team led by geneticists David Reich and Losif Lazaridis of Harvard Medical School in
Boston and Wolfgang Haak of the University of Adelaide in Australia. Among the team’s
samples were nine ancient individuals—six males, two females, and a child of undetermined
sex—from the Yamnaya culture north of the Black Sea in today’s Russia. Beginning about
6000 years ago, these steppe people herded cattle and other animals, buried their dead in
earthen mounds called kurgans and may have created some of the first wheeled vehicles.
(Many linguists think PIE already had a word for “wheel”). The team also retrieved ancient
DNA from four skeletons from the later Corded Ware culture of central Europe, known for the
distinctive pottery for which they are named (see photo below), as well as their dairy farming
skills. Archaeologists had noted similarities among these cultures, especially in their skills of
the cattle herding and horse riding.”
Corded Ware culture- this intricate pottery, may have spoken an Indo-European language as per experts
The DNA studies on ancient humans belonging to corded ware culture or Yamnaya cultures
were comparison of the cultures. The DNA studies suggested massive migration of Yamnaya
people from their steppe homeland into central Europe and south west toward subcontinent
about 3500 years prior to Common Era. The date is the best estimate today and can be
earlier. These people were associated with these Proto-Indo-European cultures labeled with
various cultures named after the excavated sites of location. The scientists for the first time
were able to link far-flung material cultures to specific genetic signatures and to each other’s
relationship with the ethnicity.
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However, the difference among the expert will continue to persist as to their original
homeland and who preceded who. The conclusion for migration is also suggestive based on
linguistic analysis. The table below is some key words comparison as well as numeral
comparison. The branch of languages to respective group is mapped and language tree is also
available.
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IE language words and Numerals Comparison
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The language and Aryan concept:
The language flow often does not correlate with gene flow. The cultural dominance and
influence secured through conquest often influences the language and religion.
Aryan concept can be best explained as the “norms” or “behavior” of an IE clan. It was widely
used by Indo-Iranians of Prehistory. Achaemenian kings claimed Aryan lineage not necessarily
from his male lineage but through princess of Media. The Medians were kin to Vedic people.
Mahabharata informs us that Vedic people were more conscious of their norms , their
identity and their code of conducts. The natives they encountered had different standards.
The vanquished were always forgiven, if they adhere to their commitments. Mahabharata
teaches us the respect for elders, emphasis on clan affiliation, only to fight a war on certain
benchmark principles(Bhagvat Gita) and when war is fought, it should be won. These initial
concepts were later filtered down into social segregation of castes and endogamous and
exogamous rules of the marriage. Aryan by no means implied the racial or ethnicity identity.
Proto-Indo-European- Religions, Worship and Consequential Mythologies:
Stone Age and Neolithic humans were severally affected by natural forces. Some natural
forces were helpful such as sun and moon (Celestial bodies). Sun provided life, agriculture,
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growth, warmth and created rainfall and provided water that nourished human survival and
life sustenance. The moon provided night life and influenced tides in the oceans. The
controlled fire was very important during cold weather and for cooking meals. The storms
and heavy winds either in summer or winter were not favorable aspects of life and push the
humans to seek shelters from its destructive fury. On the other hands, the wind driven rain
falls without destruction provided growth, agriculture and drinking water. This universal
phenomenon impacted all lives, but the humans with their thinking ability believed that
these natural forces were divine forces that can either be appeased by worshipping to exact
standards of human requirement for water needs , food supplies or forest resources. These
primordial forces of nature influenced human behaviors into the worshipping Gods. The
priests played an intermediary role between God and ordinary folks. They supplied their
services and received various forms of compensations. Those prehistoric humans and modern
humans still believe in worshipping the chosen divinities that will grant those favors for happy and
prosperous long life. Sometimes, in desperation during the pain or separation from loved ones due
either due to death or other reason, the human sought solace from the almighty, looking at the sky
where Gods or superior force resided. The sky was the chief object of worship for steppe nomads and
acquired different names from various clans and tribes.
Gods:
“Apam Napat” in Sanskrit means son of water or “Varuna, an eminent divinity of the
Vedic-
Persian and Hittite (Mitanni) people. In Zoroastrianism, “Apam Napat” becomes the
divinity
of water. Rig Veda 2.35.2 and Iranian Yasht 19 of the Avesta both labeled this deity as the
supreme creator deity now replaced in Hinduism by functional trinities (Brahma, Shiva and
Vishnu). In Zoroastrianism, it became an oppositional element as “Ahur Mazda”.
Interestingly,
the linguistics experts draw our attention that Sanskrit and Avestan- “Napat” ("grandson")
are cognate to Latin “Nepos” and English Nephew, and the name Apam Napat has also
been
compared to Etruscan “Nethuns” and Celtic “Nechtan” and Roman “Neptune”. It
seems like
he was the early natural force that human depended on it. This is quite understandable that
water is the necessity of survival of all species and important input for agriculture and
the growth of pastures for all live stocks. In later Sanskrit literature in the form of Trinity,
Brahma takes over the duty of super creation of universe and Varuna is delegated to specific
function of controlling water and winds that brings water to required places. This is more of
later evolution due to local mixing of culture. Krishna becomes the preservers of universe
while Shiva assumed the destroyer function in the Hinduism. These inserts are not present in
early Rig-Vedic composition or Mitanni’s list of Gods. See Rig-Veda 7.86. Varuna is found in
Jainism and Buddhism also. The religion of Malaysia incorporates the presence of Varuna too.
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“Agni” in Sanskrit means fire, and it corresponds to the Vedic god of fire. In Vedic
literature, Agni is a major deity of Vedic people and often invoked as a God in early Rig-Vedic
hymns totaling over 200 times along with Indra and Soma. Agni is considered the mouth of
the gods and goddesses and the medium that conveys offerings to them in a (Sanskrit Soma,
Iranian homa).
He is conceptualized in ancient Vedic texts to exist at three levels, on earth as fire, in
the atmosphere as lightning, and in the sky as the sun. This triple presence connects him as
the messenger between gods and human beings in the Vedic-Persian thoughts. The relative
importance of Agni declined in the post-Vedic era as proliferation of Gods and Goddesses
assumed increased specialization in their divinities. This was the by-product and merging with
native cultures, while preserving the identities of the Gods they brought with them. Sanskrit
derivatives of root Ag”(ni)”or "to move", with the cognates Latin “ignis, the root of English
“ignites”, Scandinavian “ogni”, Russian “Orohb” (ogon)”, Polish "ogień", Slovenian "ogenj",
Serbian “oganj”, and Lithuanian “ugnis”, with the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European root
being “hegni” Lithuanian “ugnis — all with the meaning "fire". The mention of Agni God is
found in Jainism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism.
The Proto-Indo-European mythologies were largely centered on natural phenomenon that
were important for Proto-IE and other Stone Age dwellers such as the sky, the Sun, the Moon,
the wind, the stationary stars and the dawn (sunlight). These meteorological interpretations
were popular among early priests and made logical sense because of their necessities for
survival. In early period of the planet earth , when your home is near Baltic shores and one
witnesses daily the erupting and bubbling oil from the ground accompanied with small and
big fire made the major news for that early dweller of the early bronze age.
Stone or Bronze age dwellers who are utilizing fires to cook the meal or stay warm at cold
night on wintery weather probably used volcanic or Lava stones nearby with plentiful of
forested woods. The importance of the presence of “Agni” in controlled condition was a
savior. The modern travelers who visit the countries bordering Caspian Sea countries still
observe these burning oil fires. The locals call them “door to hell” as some burn perpetually
like broken oil rig. The eternal fire burning witnessed in “Derweze, Turkmenistan” was in the
vicinity of Zoroaster’s birthplace. Zoroaster was a worshipper of fire. These types of the
natural event became the worshipping moments for the ancients. The nearby BMAC
archeological complex shows the culture of “Indo-Iranian” people of Vedic era. The Derweze
fire craters have been, until recently, off-limits to man for over 45 years. This gigantic flaming
hole in the arid Karakum Desert of central Turkmenistan would be of significant interest to
observer as to how Agni mythology developed. J. P. Mallory further adds this to his
observation.
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“It has become increasingly clear that if one wishes to argue for Indo-Iranian migrations from
the steppe lands south into the historical seats of the Iranians and Indo-Aryans that these
steppe cultures were transformed as they passed through a membrane of Central Asian
urbanism. The fact that typical steppe wares are found on BMAC sites and that intrusive
BMAC material is subsequently found further to the south in Iran, Afghanistan, Nepal, India
and Pakistan, may suggest then the subsequent movement of Indo-Iranian-speakers after
they had adopted the culture of the BMAC”
“Yanar Dag” of Azerbaijan is a natural gas fire which blazes continuously on a hillside on the
Absheron Peninsula on the Caspian Sea near Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan also
means “the Land of Fire" in the local language. As Avestan text of Iranian explains that “the
original homeland was too cold and seeing the perpetual fire gives you a sense of relief and
warmth from deadly cold. However, to an unscientific nomad of the past, this becomes a godly
phenomenon and priestly class, who are always searching for new ways of developing
worshipping business promotes this as a God to worship for. The result is “Agni” or “fire” becomes
one of Gods of the ancient people.”
The Functionalist School holds that Proto-Indo-European society and, consequently, the
mythology, was largely centered on the trifunctional system proposed by Georges Dumezil,
which holds that Proto-Indo-European society was divided into three distinct social classes:
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The farmers, warriors, and priests (Indian-Kshatriya, Brahmins, Vaisyas). The priest class grew
with the invention of new Gods and it was a boon to them for organizing rituals and charging
for their services and became a favored class to warriors for receiving blessing for the victory,
inaugural succession and other royal ceremonies. This argument has lots of merits, when
supported by Indian Jan Padas history and original caste system of both Indo-Iranian people.
Sudra was added as fourth caste after Vedic people migrated to India and generally consisted
of non-Vedic people (Anarya) who resided in India prior to Vedic arrival.
Another school of thought argues for dualistic approach like good vs. bad and oppositional
elements present within each function serves as one of the best explanations. It has a
philosophical and mythological underpinnings but it is hard to conceive that early human had
any in-depth knowledge but followed the blind beliefs and commands by priestly class that
organized worship and formulated associated mythologies. The priestly class is always
assumed to be an intermediary between God and common men. Some sort of the caste or
functionality breakdown persisted among all Indo-European tribes. In India, it multiplied due
to massive immigration of different ethnicities from Asia and diversity of religions they
brought with them in the past centuries. See below early caste breakdown.
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Early comparison of IE Gods prior to proliferation of cultures- a takeoff from DUMÉZIL,
Georges analysis and explanation that steppe nomads were searching for postures, suitable
fortifications and avoidance of conflicts, the local contacts increased, and vocabulary
expanded, and languages diverged and local deities and Gods were incorporated into original
Proto IE Gods and Goddesses. Early Sumerians and Elamite also had female Gods acting as
consort to male Gods, so the number of Gods and Goddesses kept expanding based on
functionality that was more of a reflection of specialization within settled societies. With the
Increased mixing of cultures, the list of Gods expanded. Further the tribes or clans moved
from their original homeland, large numbers of Gods were added as reflected in expanded list
below by the language group. The gods and goddesses were given functionality and
specialization that finally led to the emergence of monotheism as found in heretic Indian
religions of Jainism and Buddhism or foreign import of Christianity and Islam into
subcontinent.
Later Indo-European Gods and Goddesses and their specialization-Comparative Analysis
The Names of gods in many cases and other aspects of them can sometimes be traced back to
prehistoric origins. This would work the same way the expert linguists have reconstructed
family-trees of various Indo-European language trees leading to Proto-IE language. Take a
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look at Sanskrit word “Deva” that would equate to “Dyeus” in Proto-IE language, who were
considered as ancestor-fathers often deified and still worshipped in a place called
“Deva-Sthan” in India. “Deva Sthan” is believed to be the resting place for “Deva” who can
appear to bless followers after the rituals, and it is considered a sacred place in India besides
temple. This concept travels to several thousand miles and become Zeus in Greek and its
Roman cousin Jupiter. The oracle at Delphi can be considered as “Deva-Sthan” where
followers gather to seek blessing before starting new ventures. Alexander the great did that
prior to mounting his Asian conquest.
This author truly believes that Vedic pantheons like Indra in charge of all Devas (Spirits) was
the real earthly person in pre-historic time and savior of Vedic people and was deified and
worshipped over the ages, now he is just Rig Vedic relic.
Similarly, the progenitors of the Romans were said to have originated from Troy (Turkey). The
fathers of the Teutons were reported to have emigrated from Asia, led by Odin. The Swedes
have been taught to believe that a greater or less portion of the inhabitants of Sweden are
descended from immigrants, who were led by Odin (Comparable to Indian Indra).
The Christianity influenced their belief and dated Odin after birth of Christ to deemphasize
the pagan belief. The more accessible sources of the traditions regarding Odin's immigration
to Scandinavia are found in the Icelandic works, Heimskringla and the Prose Edda. Both
sources are from the middle age (13th century) with competing accounts.
when Christianity was proclaimed as State religion by Roman emperor and his successors, the
old Greek- Roman and Gothic paganism was purged. However the story of Odin is interesting.
We should consider Heimskringla’s story. A river, by the name Tanakvisl, or Vanakvisl,
empties into the Black Sea. This river separates Asia from Europe. East of Tanakvisl in
Asia, is a country formerly called Asaland or Asaheim, and the chief citadel or town in
that country was called Asgard. It was a great city of sacrifices, and there dwelt a chief
who was known by the name Odin.
“Under Odin, ruled twelve men who were high-priests and judges. Odin was a great chieftain
and conqueror, and so victorious was he, that his men believed that victory was wholly
inseparable from him. If he laid his blessing hand on anybody's head, success was sure to
attend him. Even if he was absent, if called upon in distress or danger, his very name
seemed to give comfort. He frequently went far away, and he remained absent half of the
year at a time. His kingdom was then ruled by his brothers Vili and Ve. Once he was absent so
long that the Aesir believed that he would never return. Then his brothers married his wife
Frigg. Finally he returned, however, he took Frigg back again.”
Indian described “Deva” as good Gods and “Asura” as a bad God. Why Vedic religion diverged
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from Persian religion is a good question. This schism was driven by priestly differences like
any other schism partially driven by the theology. There are no answers given in old Rig-Vedic
or Avestan texts but can be explained from overall history of religion and schisms. Zoroaster’s
geography dictated to his belief that “Agni” as the mighty God, while Vedic people moved
more south where they encountered natives with their own religious beliefs. This
accommodation may have driven the schism.
Looking at another way, it can be driven by Iranians who settled south of Caspian sea (Ektaban). The
geological origin fires due in Northern Iran as described led the priests to apply changes and the
worship of Agni or fire took a center stage and the followers were led to believe that “Devas” are
unable to help. Whatever may be the reason, the mythologies changed along with Gods. Iranian
“Asura” or “Ahur Mazda”became Iranian God and “Deva” that was worshipped by the Vedic people
became the bad God. The Vedic people of India took reversed theology and the schism were
incorporated in the mythologies. The Vedic people continue the proto-IE “Devas” worship.
The Proto-IE word “Dwoh” (Indian-Deva)
Goddess:
Oldest Rig Vedic literature suggest “Dawn” as mother Goddess and its significance was
limited to recognition of early rise of female to perform her household duties including
nourishment of child. This analysis differs from Gimbutas. According to Marija Gimbutas,
Proto-Indo-Europeans followed Patriarchal belief of religion, when Gods were all male. Even
Vedic people believed that female cannot be a priest, very similar to old Vatican tradition
that a nun cannot be cardinal, pope or preacher. However, their belief probably diverged
with contacts with other cultures of ancient Mesopotamia, Egyptian as well as Indus Valley
where Goddesses were worshipped as well as God.
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Later Indo-European religions incorporated Goddesses either as consort of God with some
divine powers mainly related to fertility and love. This belief was centered on the women’s
ability to procreate and perpetuate humanity. The ancient women also carried child and gave
birth to continue the tradition perpetually.
Marija Gimbutas analysis of nearly 30,000 miniature figurines, sculptures in clay, marble,
bone, copper and Gold excavated from over 3000 sites in south east Europe may have been
influenced by cross cultural interactions. Gimbutas study showed that those artifacts dated to
3rd millennia BC and were discovered in Aegean Sea area and Anatolia. However, I must add
that these areas already had trade contacts with Phoenicians who had contacts with Greek
word and ancient Mesopotamia where Goddess worship were present.
However in most of the Indo-European word. The Goddesses were not divided into fragments
of "good" and "bad." The Goddess was one and many, a unity and a multiplicity. The hybrid
bird-and snake goddess. They were the Great Goddess of the life continuum, the goddess of
birth, death, and rebirth; she was the procreator of humans and sometimes as the destroyer.
Comparative Mythologies:
Although, certain mythologies are preserved intact among IE people but there is some twist
and turns due to oral transmission and priestly interpretations. It is hard to test it except
some. Same mythologies of under word are present as well as mythologies of slaying of
monster serpents.
We can say with good degree of confidence that despite difference in geography and
distances involved, the Comparative mythologists around different continents to various
degrees are indeed related. However, no one can claim with any certainty where, when or by
whom most of the myths have been composed, and their details are impossible to trace. This
reflects the fundamental ideology of a people, and as such is related to every aspect of the
society. Influenced by factors as local culture, languages, social structure (castes and class),
physical environment and Trade related exchanges and contacts.
Germanic Tribes and Their Mythologies:
Roman historian Tacitus was probably best informed of Roman historian of Germanic Tribes.
“He noted uniform culture, tall stature with large bodies and blond hair and blue eyes and
lighter complexion than Romans (Tacitus, Germania 44). He noted that they spoke similar
dialects but divided among various tribes. He knew of Suebian Sea; North of Germanic
continent (Northern Europe-Gaul) that lay another part of German continents inhabited by
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Svionis, people divided into several communities which their clansmen described as rich in
weapons, fleets and warriors on land and sea.”
This North Sea enclosed land now is called Scandinavia that used to be called Viking land in
middle age. Nordic mythologies were kept in oral traditions too long and were transcribed in
the early Middle Ages while Vedic-Persian mythologies are much older and were transcribed
in BC. Roman and Greek mythologies go back to early Common Era. Homer’s works include
the mention of Greek God and Goddesses but does not give enough details about
mythologies, except relationship between Gods and Goddesses and their powers and status.
It becomes obvious that most of the Roman mythologies had the origin from Greek
mythologies and both had some connection with Indo-Iranian mythologies in remote
antiquity and therefore conclusion can be made for Norse as well, based on the examples of
similarity of Gods and divinities above.
Greek mythology, unlike the Hindu Vedas was not available to the ancient Greeks through a
singular compilation of texts. Instead many of the characters and their mythologies were
borne by the oral traditions developed during the Mycenaean Bronze Age. Some common
traits of mythologies are found in all IE people.
“At the dawn of civilization there were two twin brothers, Manu and Yuma, travelling with a
sacred cow. The twins decided to create a new world for a new race called 'humans'. In order
to achieve this, Yuma had to be sacrificed and carved up by his brother, with the help of the
Sky Gods, to produce the mankind. Manu created the earth, water, air and fire, and became the
first priest of the new world order. (Bible sites the Abraham’s effort to sacrifice Jacob but
prevented by God at last minute). Once the world was created, the Sky Gods gave cattle to
Trito (the Third man). The cattle were stolen by a three-headed serpent, prompting Trito to
seek the monster in its mountain cave, and killing it with the help of the Storm God, thus
freeing the cattle. Trito became the first warrior. All Indo-European speakers (Germanic,
Celts, Romans, Greeks, Hittites, Persian, and Vedic) developed their own version of the
foundation myth, derived from a shared ancestry.”
Manu, the progenitor of mankind, was also the very first king to rule this earth. The Vedic
Manu is known in Germanic mythology as Mannus. For Germanic people, Mannus was the
progenitor of the three first Germanic tribes. It is tempting to see a link with the three mains
paternal lineages found in Germanic people: Haplogroup I1, R1a and R1b. Interestingly,
Manu's twin, Yuma became Ymir in Norse mythology and Yuma or Yama shows up in
Vedic/Buddhism/Jainism as the devil.
The Roman foundation myth, the story of Romulus and Remus, is another variant of the Indo-
European myth making. Mannus would be Romulus (Romanus?), killing his twin brother
Remus (Yuma, or Iemus in Latin) to create Rome. The legend was made up centuries after the
actual foundation of Rome, as the names of Mannus and Iemus adapted to the phonology of
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the city (hence the Ro- and Re- prefix).
The Sky Gods can be identified as Odin and Thor in Germanic mythology, Taranis in Celtic
mythology, Perun/Perkūnas for the Slavs and Balts, or Zeus/Jupiter and his pantheon for the
Greco-Romans and Indra in Vedic. Unsurprisingly, cattle became a symbol of deity among
Indo-Europeans. The bull became the vehicle of Shiva in Hinduism, while Shiva, an avatar of
Vishnu, and is usually depicted riding a bull. In Zoroastrianism, (religion of
the Persian people that was closely related to Vedic religion) the lands of both Zarathustra
and the Vedic priests were those of cattle breeders and that was Bactria or Balkh (near BMAC
complex).
Nordic Edda, Indic Veda and Persian Avesta:
Most inviting comparison beside “Veda” and “Avesta” is the Nordic “Edda”. We know that
Veda and Avesta are collection of hymns paying tribute to their Gods and describing
mythologies surrounding the creation and power of Gods. The Nordic or Norse “Edda” is
known as “Samundar Edda” or the Elder Edda. Edda is a collection of Old Norse poems or
hymns from the Icelandic medieval manuscript of Royal Book also known as Codex Regius.
Along with the Prose Edda, the Poetic Edda is the most expansive source on Norse mythology.
The first part of the Codex Regius preserves poems that narrate the creation and foretold
destruction and rebirth of the Old Norse mythological world as well as individual myths about
gods concerning Norse deities. The poems in the second part narrate legends about Norse
heroes and heroines, such as Sigurd, Brynhildr and Gunnar. Please note that “Samudra” in
Sanskrit means large collection of water like ocean or large lakes and it is conceivable that all
those early parts of texts were composed outside their present geographical areas to Sur or
Amu Darya near Caspian Sea, a gathering place as one of the habitats in their chain of
migration.
Interestingly, “Vedic Vedas” and the “Norse Eddas” are separated by a minimum of two
thousand years and four thousand miles, one might expect them to bear no similarity to each
other due to infusion of other cultural elements of the land they settled and occupied.
However, deeper analysis suggests that in certain ways they may be remarkably similar.
Despite contextual dating proposed by colonial historians using Amrana letter and the
presence of Hittite Aryans in Anatolia, who were thought as cousins of Vedic people, The date
of Indic Rig Veda should be advanced to much further date to 3500 BC, when first Rig Vedic
composition may have taken place in its archaic form outside India around BMAC or Caspian
sea area as per various DNA and archeology data. The Rig-Vedic Sanskrit is the oldest
daughter language of Proto-IR language, in its archaic form and their primitive God “Agni”.
Vedic Sages or shamans (Rishis) were not only performing priestly functions but were also
25
observing celestial events like eclipses of solar, moon, equinox processions and recording
them with importantly earthly Royal events that correctly establish the Vedic chronology. The
evolving guesses of archeological findings by earlier archeologists have pushed the date of
Veda much further.
However, it should be noted that colonial or any other chronology does not necessarily imply
Vedic presence in modern India at the time of early composition of Rig-Veda but some place
along the route of migration and or at some interim settlement in steppe of central Asia,
more likely near BMAC-Sintashta culture area or Caspian sea. They maintained near exacting
oral tradition which ensured that the Vedas would be faithfully carried through time; held as
shruti” and memorized and passed on to next generations as divine revelation. It is quite
possible that despite their desire to do so, some contents may have been lost, forgotten or
altered but reviewing the theme of mythologies they are largely held intact across the board.
The world’s oldest religion was polytheism. They may well contain the earliest
documentation of “Indic polytheism “as known to contemporary scholars. Various
mythologies of the world were indeed sprung from the same ancestral mass, and then the Rig
Veda may be the oldest and closest scripture to Proto-IE people of steppe. Therefore world
scholars describe “Sanskrit” as the most archaic daughter language of Proto IE people.
The Nordic “Eddas”, by comparison are of comparatively later origin documented in the age
of Christianity. However, they hold the unique distinction of survival like sister Avesta, when
Europe was overwhelmed with monotheism of Christianity and Persia with Islam. However,
we know that the texts for Greek and Roman polytheism still survived. The “Eddas” provides
a valuable link of the Germanic tribes to Vedic and Persian tribes through mythologies,
language and grammar.
“Edda” “Veda” “Zend- Avesta” (Zoroastrianism)
“Edda” generally means “grandmother”, but scholars have been unable to explain why the
word bears the name like Veda. Many opinions have been offered but one simple one
is overlooked. Edda was composed by Snorri who may be citing his wise grandmother, who
may have told him the oral tales from older generation that he transcribed. “Edda” itself may
be derived from the Sanskrit Veda, or sacred vidya, both of which are terms for the “knowledge”
the cognates include the German “wissen”, the Swedish ”veta”, and the old English “wit” , for
“to know”. Together the “Eddas” and “Vedas” represent IE religion and associated
mythologies and the Gods of Polytheism.
The Edda poems are great tragic literature, with vivid descriptions of the emotional states of
the protagonists, Gods and heroes alike. Women play a prominent role in the “Eddic age” and
many of them are labeled as mighty warriors. The impact of these sagas from a sparsely
inhabited rocky island in the arctic Atlantic Ocean is itself unique in world culture. It appears
that Edda’s warrior characters reflect more of the culture prevailing during Viking age.
Max Muller was one of the earlier Indologists to notice similarity between Sanskrit and
German languages and their mythologies. It became obvious to many experts that
mythological themes appear cross-culturally. Swedish scholar Fredrik Sander had noted the
similar elements in Vedic and Norse mythological lore. In 1890, he published his work titled
“Rig-Veda-Edda”, wherein he asserted that the mythology of the Norse is a direct descendant
of the Indic Vedic tradition. He was quite convinced that the Eddas had succeeded in
preserving the spirit of the Vedic myths more faithfully than had the Greek and Roman
traditions. J. P. Mallory also believed that all IE people had common ancestors with common
language and he demonstrated with following comparison. It is therefore a reasonable
deduction that the speakers of these related languages share a related mythology and related
religion. As in the prehistory, all humans followed and worshipped the natural forces as
divinities who can be pleased or displeased through rituals and offering as formulated and
27
dictated by their clan priest.
The myths have tendency to add, subtract or alter over time more quickly than
the languages. The languages are shared widely as they are spoken. The
mythologies are religion related and, in some cases, it is controlled by the priest
but it ends up being shared with contacts and travels. This is how Herodotus wrote
the tales of Scythia through travel and contacts. As the language was shared with
cross cultural exchanges the myth elements were automatically shared by tales
and not necessarily always to the prescribed priestly version. The present
Hinduism have altered the hierarchy of Vedic Gods, relative positions and
associated mythologies as part of accommodation to mixing cultures and melting
pot of various schisms and traditions that evolved over millennia. There are many
Goddesses that have been introduced in later Hinduism with cross cultural
contact while maintaining functionalities.
Why Canonical texts were developed later?
The challenges for prehistoric human were significant. The papyrus, stone tablets
and wooden barks took long time to appear in the human history to record
human thoughts and events. The alphabets or symbols had to be first invented for expressing
human thoughts, so they can be taught and transmitted to other people for
common understanding. The dye, ink or fine chiseling tools had yet to appear or
to be developed to inscribe the words so that others can decipher and understand
the meaning. From recorded history, we learned that it took millennia to develop
the inscribed script after the languages were spoken and understood. The oral
tradition was common in prehistoric time. The western world especially Greeks
and Romans stand out as model example for recording history earlier with the use
of alphabets and scripts that were originally invented by the Phoenicians. Asians did
record their epics part as history and part as myth. The part of the reason was
that Royal bards were assigned the duties, but their focus was narrow and
confined to the kings they served, and they were confined to genealogies than
general history of people. Some of the histories are buried in “Purana” of remote
antiquity. However, they contain no details of geography as to where events took
28
place.
Long before in pre-history, a chief commanded his clan through an aid or a
Priest. He had to communicate with others, about organizing and assigning the duties and
roles, his clan members were expected to play. The spoken language and words were first to
appear and is now embedded in the genes, just like a born baby first learn to speaks the
words and speech from the parents and siblings, without touching any pens or paper for
writing. The language is not learned until baby matures and goes to school to learn alphabets
and written language. This basic understanding of skills illustrates why oral tradition precede
the writing tradition. This is often describing as the inherited learning.
Prehistoric man without the language, writing medium, alphabets and language
rules did not leave any trace of their thoughts for the modern archaeologist to
trace. The migration of a pre-historic people leaves no linguistic clues behind
until a site of occupation is discovered by the archeologist. Their material cultures
sometimes can be identified, if well preserved in certain climatic condition for
comparison with previous findings but it is difficult to determine its linguistic
identity. We can hypothesize from the material changes and art of potteries,
where they possibly went or what they ate as food. We hardly know where they
came from and where was their homeland. We also don’t know how they lived,
worshipped and the words they spoke. We simply have no clues how
Neanderthal, Denisovans and modern humans mated and communicated with
each other. That is the dilemma and never lasting arguments, we face to
determine the homeland.
J.P. Mallory Opines:
“The linguistic identity of archaeological cultures more distant from the historical
record may be thought to lie beyond reasonable inference. This is not, however,
an option open to the archaeologist engaged in the Indo-European homeland
problem, and we will have to follow the archaeological evidence as best we can.”
REFERENCES:
1. In search of Indo-Europeans, Language, archeology and mythology by J.P. Mallory, Amazon,
1989
2. Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture –Language, Art and Discipline by J. P Mallory & D.Q.
Adams, Google & Amazon books 1997.
3. Race, Life of Aryan People:
29
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_Life_of_the_Aryan_Peoples
4. The Kurgan Culture and the Indo-Europeanization of Europe (Journal of Indo-European
Studies by Marija Gimbutas, ISBN-13: 978-0941694568 by Paper cavalier, Google book
5. Indo-European Language and Culture: an Introduction by Benjamin W. Fortson IV, Google
or Amazon stores
6. from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic, a linguistic history by Don Ringe, Oxford
university Press, Google or Amazon bookstore.
7. Yamnaya, Light Skinned, Brown Eyed….Ancestors???
https://dnaexplained.com/2015/06/15/Yamnaya-light-skinned-brown-eyed-ancestors/
8. Something is very wrong with models based on the so-called ‘Yamnaya admixture’ – and
archaeologists are catching up (II) https://indo-european.eu/2018/01/something-isverywrongwith-
models-based-on-the-so-called-yamnaya-admixture-and-archaeologists-arecatchingup-
ii/
9. “Telling Tales” https://www.archaeology.org/exclusives/articles/1302-protoindoeuropeanschleichers-
fable
10. Slavic Mandala https://www.slavorum.org/slavic-mandala/
11. Ancient Proto-Indo-Iranian Redhead mummies discovered in Russia
https://www.slavorum.org/ancient-proto-indo-iranian-redhead-mummies-discoveredinrussia/
12. Mitochondrial Genome reveals east to west cline of steppe ancestry of corded ware
population by various international authors
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-29914-5
13. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Cartwright, Mark, 2013
14. A reader in comparative Indo-European religion by Ranko Matasović 1016, Zagreb
university
http://mudrac.ffzg.unizg.hr/~rmatasov/PIE%20Religion.pdf
15. Mother culture and Patriarchal culture Indo-Europeans by Leb Tohar
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http://www.lebtahor.com/Autumn/historical%20baggage/Mother%20Cultures%20and%20P
atriarchal%20Indo-Europeans.htm
16. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology
Very thankful to you! Happy 2024!
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